Racial Disccrimination in a Raisin in the Sun Essay

The late 1950s was filled with racial discriminations. There was still sections living as well as public signs of Colored and Whites. Blacks and Whites were not for any change or at least not yet. A Raisin in the Sun, by Lorraine Vivian Hansberry, tells a story of a black family that is struggling to gain a middle class acceptance in Chicago. The family of five, one child and four adults live in a tiny apartment that is located in a very poor area. Dreams of owning a business and having money to accomplish goals is two key parts played out throughout the whole play. Walter Younger is determined to have his own business and he will go to ends met to see that dream come true. Financial bridges are crossed and obstacles arise when Walter†¦show more content†¦blacks ignored theater because theater ignored them (p.1461).† Martin Luther King played a big part in the racial battle to being all equal. He wrote a letter while being in jail in Birmingham for eight days. He compo sed a letter which was a response back to a letter that was posted in the local newspaper saying that his protest was â€Å"unwise and untimely.† He wrote his letter for a national audience as did Lorraine Hansberry. She as did Martin Luther King wanted people to notice and to pay attention to the ways blacks were living, as well as what was going unseen or talked about behind closed doors. The people of that time listened up to what Martin Luther King had to say and when he was finally released from jail the protest assumed a larger scale and more confrontational characters. That lets you know that whether it be a book or it be a letter the people were affect and they were ready to make an effect themselves. There were obvious quotes throughout A Raisin in the Sun that let you know how the characters felt and what was going through. You came up to me and you said†¦ Mr. Asagai – I want very much to talk with you. About Africa. You see, Mr. Asagai, I am looking for my identity! He then goes to laugh about it. Asagai is playing with Beneatha about how he wishes to learn more about African culture. It seems that only a few years after the play was done that many of the blacks wanted to know more about their African roots; therefore begin to explore them. I guess

Trumans Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb - 2142 Words

history 138w-38 | Why did Truman use the atomic bomb against Japan? What did his decision say about priorities of American foreign policy? | Truman decision and reasons behind deployment of the atomic bomb | | Min Yong Jung | 11/2/2010 | | Harry S. Truman, the 33rd President of the United States, deployed the atomic bomb on Japan to ensure the end of the Pacific War with minimal US casualties. Upon rejection of the Potsdam Declaration and calls for unconditional surrender by the Japanese, the US in direct retaliation deployed the atomic weapon ‘Little Boy’ on the city of Hiroshima in August 6, 1945 and continued by bombing Nagasaki with ‘Fat Man’ on August 9th. The Allies had concluded the European front by capturing Berlin and†¦show more content†¦Japan with its long standing history of the Bushido code, emphasized the need for loyalty from its subjects. The Bushido code and determination of the Japanese leadership ensured the fact that an invasion into the mainland of Japan would provide high number of casualties for US troops and additionally â€Å"more exposure to an enemy that did not fear death which would bring about more results like the Indianapolis† on July 29th 1945, where the delivery of a Japanese torpedo resulted in the ship losing â€Å"880 of its crew of 1,196.† Thus the deployment of the two atomic bombs were not only necessary in that they would ensure the safety of US troops but it would also provide a shock factor to both the people and government of Japan. Air raid sirens had been turned off in Hiroshima, due to the fact that there were only several planes in the air. If one bomb and one plane could neutralize a city, there was little for the Japanese to do in defense against such a destructive weapon. Proponents of the argument that Truman was immoral in using the atomic bomb, constantly argue that the Japanese were depleted in their will and ability to wage war and were actively seeking chances to ending the war by means of diplomatic measures through peace feelers in the Soviet Union. The argument is one of those what if’s in history that can never be concludedShow MoreRelatedHarry Trumans Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb1314 Words   |  6 PagesTo what extent was Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified? A. Plan of Investigation Research Question: To what extent was Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified? This investigation assesses President Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It will determine whether or not his decision was justified. This investigation will scrutinize the reasons that made Harry TrumanRead MoreEssay Pres, Truman Atomic Bomb Decision1421 Words   |  6 PagesPresident Trumans Decision to drop the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki During World War II the war in Europe ended after the unconditional German surrender at General Eisenhowers Headquarters in Reims, France, May 7, 1945. After the unconditional German surrender in Europe the war shifted to Asia and the Pacific. As the war continued against Japan the Allied forces captured islands such as Iwo Jima and Okinaawa close to Japan brought the Japanese homeland within range of naval and airRead MoreWas President Truman Responsible for the Cold War? Essay1105 Words   |  5 Pagesthe end of World War II, after the death of President Franklin Roosevelt. Almost immediately after becoming president, Truman learned of the Manhattan Project, and had to decide whether or not to use the atomic bomb. With the advice of James Byrnes, Secretary of State, Truman decided to drop two atomic bombs on Japan, in part to demonstrate America’s power to the world and gain a political advantage in Europe (Offner 294). After World War II ended, there were negotiations abo ut Germany, and it wasRead MoreWhy Harry Truman Dropped the Bomb on Hiroshima, and the Consequences for Humanity1355 Words   |  6 Pagesthe United States, led by Harry Truman, decided to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, forever changing warfare. This paper will be dedicated to why Harry Truman decided to use the atomic bomb on Japan and the effects that this decision had on humanity afterward. The creation of the atomic bomb, and subsequently the Manhattan Project, was created in response to the belief that the German Government was in the process of creating atomic weapons. This belief was expressed to President RooseveltRead MoreEssay about The Debate Over Trumans Use of the Atomic Bombs1007 Words   |  5 Pages On August 7, 1945 the headline of the front page of the New York Times read: First Atomic Bomb Dropped on Japan; Missile is Equal to 20,000 Tons of TNT: Truman Warns Foe of a â€Å"Rain of Ruin.†1 Now the debate between historians on the question of whether Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb was correct or not had begun. There are critics and historians who say that Japan was already beat and that the war could have ended by negotiations. In their opinions because Germany had surrendered, theRead MoreAtomic Bombs On Hiroshima And Nagasaki844 Words   |  4 Pagesdropped atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killing nearly 200,000 people. This resulted in Japans surrender in World War II. J. Samuel Walker analyzes this historical event in his book Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs. Over the past 70 years’ extensive research has been conducted and there is an understanding that Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs is inconclusive. It is impossible to determine that the use of the bomb was the quickestRead MoreThe Atomic Bombs910 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the 20th century, specifically the year 1945, the United States of America had two atomic bombs that the commander and chief, and president at the time, Harry Truman, kne w about. President Truman plan was to drop the bombs on two of Japans cities, Hiroshima first and then Nagasaki. Truman’s plans went accordingly, which to this day leads to a very controversial topic on whether or not dropping the atomic bombs was a good or bad thing. There is evidence and reasoning to back up both claims, inRead MoreThe Atomic Bomb Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki1460 Words   |  6 Pagesworld’s Nuclear Age, left an indelible mark on the course of U.S. Foreign Policy. Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan in August 1945, while seemingly uncontroversial among his advisors at the time, almost immediately landed at the center of one of history’s most provocative debates. Revisionist theorists challenge the so-called government-propagated ‘myth of the bomb,’ which paints the atomic bomb as the only alternative to a prolonged and bloody invasion of the Japanese homelandRead MoreThe Atomic Bombs On Hiroshima And Nagas aki982 Words   |  4 PagesHiroshima, it only makes me wonder what was going through the mind of President Harry Truman when he gave the â€Å"green light† to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It has been more than 70 years since that happened and the conclusion of World War II, and yet the legacy remains in our modern day history books and class lectures. But was deploying the atomic bombs on Japan really necessary? What was Truman thinking? And did the end really justify the means? Truly, upon reading Takaki’s HiroshimaRead More Trumans Decision to use the atomic mom1507 Words   |  7 Pages Truman’s decision to use atomic weapons has long been a controversial subject throughout the decades after he used it. Many scholars and people who surrounded the president at the time published memoirs and books about the decision to use the weapon. As years went, more works of writing and information were released which added more information to the vas t knowledge we have of the decision to drop the bomb and of what the Japanese faced after the event took place. J. Samuel Walker wrote a book called

Overcrowding and Indigenous Health †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Overcrowding and Indigenous Health. Answer: Introduction Development, and industrialization, in particular, have contributed significantly to health, including by facilitating personal and social development, and by significantly improving health and education services, transport and communications. There is no doubt that globally people live longer and healthier lives than centuries or even decades ago. However, industrialization also has negative effects on the health, not only of the labor force but also of the general population. These effects are attributable either directly to the existence of safety problems and harmful agents (Booth Caroll, 2016). This article describes the impacts of poor housing and overcrowding health risks, environmental health, risk characterization and management strategies in inner apartments of Melbourne city. Poor housing and overcrowding health risks can be biological, chemical, physical, biomechanical or psychosocial. Environmental health risks include classical hazards created by poor hygiene and housing conditions, as well as agricultural and industrial pollution of air, water, food and soils. These risks are accompanied by multiple health impacts, ranging from directly related disasters (such as the 1991 cholera epidemic in Latin America and the many chemical poisoning cases in Bhopal, India) to (Such as in Minamata, Japan), or subtle, indirect, or even contested effects (e.g. Love Canal, USA) (Booth Caroll, 2016). The assessment was carried out in the inner-city apartments of the city of Melbourne, and it was realized that there are some factors that affect risks to health and their management plans established that can effectively solve these problems. For a large number of people living in the inner apartments of Melbourne city coupled with poor hygiene, there has been experienced an increase in transmission of highly epidemic diseases such as cholera, typhoid, meningitis and acute respiratory infections. The rates of outbreaks of these infections are higher in a crowded area of residence as compared to the area which has a lower population. Water pollution is common in areas with poor living standards. The often poor and reckless methods of disposing of industrial waste - negligent discharge into watercourses, or open dumps, which often pollute water and soil - are a serious threat to environmental health. As a result of this water bodies and resources have become contaminated by microorganisms e.g. Salmonella typhi which has resulted in infectious disease such as typhoid. Water may also be contaminated by toxins and poisonous chemicals that can be fatal to both human and animal health. Due to overcrowding and the high number of people that consume the contaminated water the rate of spread of these infections have increased (Gifford, 2012). Air pollution, especially in industrialized areas of the city, is also very common. Gasses emitted from factories and even dusty environments created by the existence of a high number of people have to lead to an increase in respiratory disease in these residential areas. Such common infections include pulmonary diseases such as asthma. A dense population will also effect public health facilities available as the number of patients are high and therefore increased ease by which germs can spread in healthcare environments. In emergency situations, the number of nosocomial infections is typically high. Decreasing overcrowding through the provision of enough healthcare facilities and ensuring proper organization of the Management services should, therefore, be a top priority (Booth Caroll, 2016). People in overcrowded areas are more susceptible to fire risk because of stuffy living conditions. Once a fire outbreak has occurred it is very difficult to stop it because belongings are piled next to each other that can easily catch fire. Since these people are poor, their houses are also made up of cheap materials that are susceptible to fire. Purchase and access to fire extinguishers are also a major barrier to fire safety (Gifford, 2012). People living in poor living standards have a poor eating habit something that can negatively affect their health. This because they are not able to obtain decent foods. Another factor could be that most of them do not care about their bodies and hence no need to be keen on whatever they eat. Eating food with low nutritional status might lead to malnutrition especially in children. Some of this population eat a lot of fatty food resulting in obesity. Hazard and exposure assessment Here were are going to determine whether the issues identified above have the ability to pose a risk to the health of an individual or a population. Pollutants and their derivatives can have harmful effects by altering, through their interaction, molecules essential to the biochemical or physiological processes of the human body. Three factors affect the degree of toxicity of these substances: their chemical and physical properties, the dose of pollutants that reaches key tissue areas, and the response of these tissues to the pollutant. Health effects of air pollutants may also vary among demographic groups; Young people and the elderly, in particular, are often sensitive to their deleterious effects (Krieger Higgins, 2002). People with asthma or other respiratory or cardiac conditions may experience aggravation of their symptoms if they are exposed. Water pollution is a major health concern for people in densely populated areas and poor living conditions. This is because polluted water can be a medium by which many infectious organisms spread to the general population. The main short-term health risks associated with water are infectious. They come from the presence of micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses, parasites). The effects are usually mild (digestive disorders, mycoses) but may prove more important (hepatitis, leptospirosis, typhoid, cholera, legionellosis). (Krieger Higgins, 2002). For long-term risks, the symptoms depend on the dose and duration of exposure. Developed diseases often have a chemical origin: lead poisoning, arsenic, mercury, chromium, nitrate, hydrocarbons that are present in water. With water contamination, the general population may be hardly hit by the health risks but children under the age of five years are likely to suffer more because of their low immunity hence can develop infectious symptoms faster than the adults. Infectious diseases are a single common cause of children morbidity and mortality these days (Booth Caroll, 2016). Fire and accidents The occurrence of fire in a living setup has the most painful experience of all dangers. Uncontrolled fire outbreaks can kill many people. It also can cause several severities of injuries in individuals. Fire victims often over-bleed leading to loss of large amounts of body fluids and if emergency treatments are not given the patient may lose his or her life. A fire victim may also lose part of his or her body becoming disabled, increasing dependence on an already poor population (Lucas, 2016) .Accident mainly results from poor infrastructure and designing and building of the living units where quite often they fall injuring a large number of people. The injured patients suffer a lot of pain and emotional stress. Most people also lose their lives through these accidents. The spread of infectious diseases is facilitated by a population in a dense area. When people are crowded, it means the relative distance between there is also reduced hence contagious diseases such tuberculosis are easily spread. In densely populated areas if an individual is suffering from tuberculosis the infection can spread very fast since it spread by air. (Krieger Higgins, 2002). Eating food with low nutritional status deny the body of important molecules for its normal functioning hence one is prone to fall sick. Eating high fatty foods lead to obesity which predisposes one to several diseases such as hypertension and diabetes mellitus. This, therefore, is a pathway in which diseases enter into one's systems. Some health risk factors are directly related to the provision of health services by the relevant authorities, and the impacts of neglect of these duties have been summarized in the table below (Gifford, 2012). Problems related to the provision of health services Risk for the health Garbage not collected Presence of pathogens in waste, vectors of diseases (mainly flies and rats) that reproduce or feed in garbage, fire hazards, pollution of waterways Insufficient quantity or quality of water Diarrhea, trachoma, infectious dermatoses, lice infections, other infections caused by the consumption of unwashed foods Lack of sanitary facilities Infections of the digestive and oral pathways (diarrhea, cholera, typhoid fever), intestinal parasites, filariasis Absence of sewer Accidents (floods, landslides, house collapses), infections of the digestive and oral tracts, schistosomiasis, diseases transmitted by mosquitoes (malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever), filariasis at Wuchereria bancrofti Workers whose immediate or extended work environment is not adequately provided with such services are exposed to many occupational hazards. Those who work to provide services or to maintain urban infrastructures, such as garbage collectors and sweepers, are all the more exposed. Also, insufficient health services to all people living in the crowded regions may make an individual miss an opportunity to be medically be attended to thereby leading to exacerbation of their diseases. This can lead to long term suffering to these patients (Gifford, 2012). Risk characterization is used to give health risk incidence in a given population under study. The mostly affected group by infectious diseases in these settlements are children under the age of five considering they have lower immunity as compared to those of adults. Although it is evidenced that the general population is also commonly affected, the percentages are high in these children. Immune compromised patients such as those living with HIV/AIDS also have higher chances of getting infections form the microorganisms. This is because the ability of their bodies to fight off infections are reduced, and hence they can be easily attacked by the pathogens and cause infections. (Krieger Higgins, 2002). Fire and accident incidences Incidences of fire are not very common as there can be three fire evidence in half a year but when this occur many people lose their lives, stuff and a lot of suffering are experienced. Fire incidences have however been related to smoking as it was revealed during the assessment that the main cause of these fires was from smokers. Accidents experienced as a result of the poor housing and building plans were surprisingly many. Sometimes a house would fall with people inside causing the death of many. This is because of poor building plans and overcrowding in a building especially the story buildings beyond its capacity. (Lucas, 2016). This is most common among those of lower socioeconomic classes who cannot afford pure water for cooking and drinking. They are therefore forced to use the cheaper option of the water that is freely available which in many cases is contaminated with infectious pathogens. The virulent pathogens are only common in these populations who suffer from various diseases (Booth Caroll, 2016). This is mainly common among those who work in the industries and those who live near industries that emit their wastes into the environment. The impacts of air pollution are also directly associated with the period that one has been in the area of pollution. It was realized that people who had stayed for more than five years in the area or have worked in the industries for more than three years had a high exposure to the damaging effects of the pollutants. The nutritional imbalance has the greatest effect on young children. This is because young children require food nutrients to strengthen their immune systems. The absence of these important molecules in their food will lower their immune systems predisposing them to several infections and diseases. (Krieger Higgins, 2002). Risk management plan The following recommendations are put forth to help in solving the health-related risks in the dense and poor living conditions in Melbourne city. The local government should formulate policies to ensure that landlords adhere to building rules put in place to enhance the safety of the tenants. Factors to be considered when putting up a building should include; The prevention of domestic problems includes the adoption of measures at different stages of the provision of housing: Location (safe and disease-free) i.e. should be away from unhygienic areas to prevent the spread of pathogenic infections. Housing design (spaces with sufficient dimensions and climate protection, use of non-perishable building materials, adequate protection of equipment) - adequate protection and use of non-perishable materials in the building will prevent it from catching fire easily. Construction (prevention of construction defects); ensure unscrupulous contractors are dealt with according to the law. Maintenance (satisfactory inspections and controls of the equipment, etc.) inspections are important in helping to identifying fault equipment e.g. fire extinguishers and replaced (Lucas, 2016). The local government should put up an effective sewerage system to prevent contaminating water meant for human and animal consumption. The construction of disposal sites (containment) for hazardous products is relatively expensive. Each site should be carefully selected to prevent pollution of surface water and major aquifers (groundwater). Each site must be designed and constructed with impermeable barriers to prevent contamination of soil and groundwater. These barriers usually consist of a thick plastic wrap which is placed on a layer of compressed clay. In reality, a barrier is used to delay breaks and slow infiltrations that always occur but are acceptable insofar as they do not cause accumulation and do not seriously pollute groundwater. The spatial distribution of the population, land use restrictions, transportation costs and ecological concerns of society are all pressures to find a solution to the economically viable disposal of hazardous wastes. As a result, there is increasing interest in methods such as source reduction, recycling, chemical neutralization and the development of safe disposal facilities for hazardous wastes. The first two solutions are aimed at reducing the amount of waste produced. Chemical neutralization reduces the toxicity of the waste and can transform it into more easily manipulated solids. As much as possible, it is better to carry out this operation at the place where the waste is produced to limit the volume of waste to be moved. For residual waste, well-designed facilities are required, using the best techniques for processing and packaging chemicals (Booth Caroll, 2016). The government can partner with other stakeholders and build more health facilities to the people. The presence of a well-equipped health facility that is accessible to all is a big step forward in trying to solve the issues of health risks. Public health should be promoted considering different aspects e.g. though hand washing after visiting a toilet can help in reducing the chances of the outbreak of several infectious diseases. The government should provide clean water to these citizens and decongestion done by putting up better housing units. Better housing leads to better health care, and a healthy nation will have enough human resources to steer its growth and development (Lucas, 2016). Conclusion To give a summary of the assessment it has been determined that several factors impart health risks in populations of people living in a crowded, poor conditions in the inner-city apartments of Melbourne city. The factors include increased the risk of infections among others. The government has been seen to have a big role to play in ensuring these health risk factors are put in control. This they can do by partnering with other stakeholders and controlling how building are put up in these areas to ensure its citizens are secure. The government should, therefore, put long-term goals to enable achievement of better housing and healthcare for all socio-economic status not-with-standing. References Bansal, R. K., Saxena, D. M. (2002, April). Overcrowding and health. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12710336 Booth, A., Caroll, N. (2016, March 08). Overcrowding and indigenous health in Autralia. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43215/2/DP498.pdf Chance of a time; impact of bad housing on children health. (2016, September). Retrieved May 14, 2017, from https://england.shelter.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/39202/Chance_of_a_Lifetime.pdf Community and housing. (2016). Retrieved May 15, 2017, from https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/building-and-development/urban-planning/community-housing/Pages/community-housing.aspx Does high-rise living promote social isolation? (2016, August 29). Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://blogs.crikey.com.au/theurbanist/2016/08/30/does-high-rise-living-promote-social-isolation/ Eliot, J. (2014, August 08). The three housing problems that most affect your health. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/society-professionals/2014/aug/08/housing-problems-affect-health Environmental Risk Assessment. (n.d.). Retrieved May 14, 2017, from https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/environmental-risk-assessment Gifford, R. (2012, March 10). The Consequences of Living in High-Rise Buildings. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233490985_The_Consequences_of_Living_in_High-Rise_Buildings Homeless in Melbourne's CBD to be given immediate housing under $9.8m State Government plan. (2017, January 27). Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/building-and-devhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-27/homeless-in-melbournes-cbd-to-be-given-immediate-housing/8216454elopment/urban-planning/community-housing/Pages/homes-for-people-housing-strategy.aspx Household crowding. (2013, November 23). Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.ehinz.ac.nz/indicators/indoor-environment/household-crowding/ K?l?n, G. A. (2016, February 12). SIGNIFICANT ISSUES IN AND AROUND HIGH-RISE ENVIRONMENTS. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.academia.edu/11057600/SIGNIFICANT_ISSUES_IN_AND_AROUND_HIGH-RISE_ENVIRONMENTS Krieger, J., Higgins, D. L. (2002, May). Housing and Health: Time Again for Public Health Action. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447157/ Lucas, C. (2016, August 29). High-rise apartments are bad to live in and bad for society, says respected architect. Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.theage.com.au/victoria/highrise-apartments-are-bad-to-live-in-and-bad-for-society-says-respected-architect-20160828-gr39nf.html Lucas, C. (2016, August 31). Richard Wynne's planning rules fail to address small matter of Melbourne apartment sizes. Retrieved May 15, 2017, from https://www.smh.com.au/comment/richard-wynnes-planning-rules-fail-to-address-small-matter-of-melbourne-apartment-sizes-20160830-gr4ds4.html Poor health and poor housing. (n.d.). Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/housing/poor-health-and-poor-housing.php Reasons Why High-Rises Kill Livability. (2014, September 29). Retrieved May 14, 2017, from https://www.smartcitiesdive.com/ex/sustainablecitiescollective/7-reasons-why-high-rises-kill-livability/561536/ Social and psychological effects of living in high-rise buildings / Susan Young. - Version details. (2015, August 20). Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/11523164?selectedversion=NBD1084611 SOLUTIONS TO OVERCROWDING. (2017). Retrieved May 16, 2017, from https://www.healthabitat.com/big-issues/overcrowding The health problems associated with poor housing and home conditions, inadequate water supplies, flooding, poor sanitation and water pollution. (2016). Retrieved May 15, 2017, from https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/disease-causation-diagnostic/2f-environment/health-problems-poor-housing What are the health risks related to overcrowding? (2017). Retrieved May 14, 2017, from https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/emergencies/qa/emergencies_qa9/en/

Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon Essay Example

Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon Essay A Phonological and Prosodical Contrastive Study of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Submitted by: Pedroza, Kristel Doone Q. Uy, Mary Colleen U. Submitted to: Prof. Ria Parsram Rafael As a requirement in Linguistics 120 First Semester AY 2010-2011 Department of Linguistics University of the Philippines, Diliman October 18, 2010 A Phonological and Prosodical Contrastive Study of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Pedroza, Kristel Doone Q. Uy, Mary Colleen U. Abstract Every language constitutes its own sound system, and this sound system is a very important aspect when learning or studying a language. Along with this sound system are the prosodic features of a language. This study is about the phonological system and the prosodic features of three of the Bisayan Languages, namely Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. The phonological system and the prosodic features of these languages were already studied by Zorc (1975) and Jacobson (1979) but the authors still felt the need to further deepen the scope of their studies. Aside from analyzing the basic phonology of the three languages, this study will also tackle the effect of affixation on the prosodic features of the three languages. To be able to study and analyze the said features, the authors used the data gathered from eliciting materials answered by the informants of the study. After the analysis done, the authors were able to present the relevant findings of the study. First is the basic phonetic system of the three languages and their similarities and differences. We will write a custom essay sample on Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Second is the basic description of the prosodic features of the three languages and their similarities and differences. And lastly, the most important of all, are the changes that occur for every language when affixation happens on a morpheme, the specific affixes that contribute to regular stress shift, and their similarities and differences. This signifies that since the languages studied are of a common classification, several similarities would be evident. But, since they are still classified as different languages, they would also have distinct characteristics from each other. I. Introduction Learning a language begins with the recognition of the different sound systems of the language, because the sense and consequently the understanding of a word depends upon its pronunciation. In the field of linguistics, the study of the sound system of a language is called phonetics. Phonetics provides a systematic study of a language from its smallest element called the segments, which are then classified to consonants and vowels. Embedded in the sound system of a language is what we call the suprasegmentals or the prosodic features of a language. Suprasegmentals are features associated with stretches larger than the segment, in particular pitch, stress and duration (Gussenhoven, 2001). While it is not the paper’s primary aim to teach a language, this study provides a comparative study of three of the Bisayan languages with regards to their phonological and prosodic structure. A. Background of the Languages The Bisayan languages is a group of Philippine languages heavily distributed in the islands of Visayas, the Bicol Region, and in some parts of Mindanao and Luzon. Zorc (1975) mentions 36 languages of the Bisayan languages, the Bisayan dialects, together with Tagalog and the Bikol languages as the languages that make up the Central-Philippine Subgroup (McFarland, 1994). This study focuses on three of the Bisayan languages: Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. McFarland groups Waray and Hiligaynon under the Central Bisayan Subgroup and Cebuano under the South Bisayan Languages. Zorc, on the other hand, separates Waray and Hiligaynon to the Warayan Subgroup and Peripheral Subgroup, respectively, both under the higher order subgroup of Central Bisayan while Cebuano is placed under the Cebuano Subgroup. Waray (or Waray-Waray) is a Philippine language spoken in the provinces of Samar, Northern Samar, Eastern Samar, Leyte and Biliran. As of the year 2000 census of Ethnologue, it has an estimated 2. 5 million speakers. Some of its dialects are Samar-Leyte, Northern Leyte, Leyte, Utudnon and Baybay. 1 Cebuano (or Sugbuhanon) is a Philippine language spoken in the provinces of Cebu, Negros, Bohol, some parts of Leyte and Samar, and in Mindanao. As of the year 2000 consensus of Ethnologue, it has an estimated 16 million speakers in the Philippines and in 1 Information taken from http://www. ethnologue. com/show_language. asp? code=war, accessed Oct. 14, 2010 other countries, and is the most widely spoken Visayan language. It has four dialects: Cebu, Boholano, Leyte, and Mindanao Visayan. 2 Hiligaynon (or Ilonggo) is a Philippine language spoken in Western Visayas, which includes the Panay Island and Negros Occidental, and in many parts of Mindanao. As of the year 2000 consensus of Ethnologue, it has an estimated 6 million speakers. 3 Figure 1. 0 Distribution of Visayan languages taken from: http://en. wikipilipinas. rg/images/thumb/1/10/Visayan_language_distribution_map. png B. Objective of the Study Generally, the aim of this study is to present a comparative analysis of the phonology and prosody of the Visayan languages Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. Specifically, the authors would like to find the answers to the following questions: (a) With regards to phonetics, what are the similarities and the differences between these three lang uages? (b) 2 3 Information taken from http://www. ethnologue. com/show_language. asp? code=ceb, accessed Oct. 3, 2010 Information taken from http://www. thnologue. com/show_language. asp? code=hil, accessed Oct. 3, 2010 How do phonetic features affect the suprasegmental features of speech, specifically stress and length, of the languages? (c) How do the suprasegmental features affect the meaning of different lexical items? (d) How does the morphological process of affixation affect the suprasegmental features for each language? And (e) Is there any uniformity with the phonological changes that take place when affixation has been made and how do we explain them? C. Importance of the Study This study will be a contribution to the growing knowledge of the linguistic community. It will be able to help other Linguistics students, and even those who are not, understand the languages that will be studied and give additional information to other linguistic organizations like SIL. As this paper deals with the smallest elements of the language, this paper can serve as a strong foundation for those who wish to learn to speak the languages correctly. The data that the authors presented and analyzed may also serve as points to prove or disprove certain theories like Sub-grouping or Phonetic Universals. And lastly, this may be a stepping stone for a new study on Philippine Languages using the Lexical Conservatism Approach, as this concept seems to be a modern one, and only a few scholars have dealt with it. D. Scope of the Study So as to give a basic description of each language, the study will tackle first the phonetic system of the three languages. This will only include the identification of the phonemes present in each of the languages and the presentation of examples for each phoneme. The features to be tackled in the comparative analysis of the phonologies of the languages will include the number of phonemes each language has and the phonemes present in each of the language. The prosodic features will be tackled next. The features that will only be included are stress and length. A basic description of the stress and length of each language will be given first then a more detailed description concerning the effects of affixation, and lastly, a comparative analysis of the findings. E. Methodology To be able to answer the questions and fulfill the goal of this study, the esearchers went through the following steps: First, the authors chose 200 unaffixed words from published dictionaries in each language to be studied. Heteronyms which can be subjected to affixation were also included. The words that were chosen came from the core vocabulary of the languages. Second, the informants (1 primary and 1 for checking for each language) translated and read the words the au thors have chosen. Third, the informants read the second batch of wordlist which is comprised of 50 words: 2 unaffixed verbs and the other 48 their affixed derivations. The recitations of all the informants were recorded. After these, the authors proceeded with the presentation and analysis of the data given by the informants. F. Informant Profile This study presented the analysis based on the materials gathered from the primary sources – the informants. There was a maximum of two informants for each of the three languages: the first informant provided the terms of their designated language and the basis for our transcription while the second informant reviewed and validated the information given by the first informant, and gave additional items that the informant believed is helpful for the study. The primary informant for Cebuano is Ms. Helen Verwin. She is 27 years old from Cebu City, Cebu. She has been living in Sucat, Paranaque for 10 years now but still communicates in her first language with her employers and co-workers. The second informant for Cebuano is Mrs. Judith Medallo, 45 years old from Bogo City, Cebu. She has now been working with our primary informant for Cebuano for 5 months. The primary informant for Waray is one of the authors of this study, Ms. Kristel Doone Q. Pedroza, 18 years old. English is her first language but she was born and grew up in Tacloban City, Leyte where she was exposed to Waray. She has been living in Quezon City for more than a year now. The second informant for Waray is Ms. Rochelle Granali, 19 years old. She was born and raised in Tacloban City, Leyte and Waray is her first language. She has been living in Quezon City for 3 years now. Our primary informant for Hiligaynon is Ms. Christel Anne Chu-Santos, 18 years old. She was born in Iloilo and lived there for 3 years before moving to General Santos City, South Cotabato, where she continued to use Hiligaynon when ommunicating with her family and relatives. She has now been living in Quezon City for more than a year. The authors failed to find another Hiligaynon speaker who had the time to contribute to the study so the authors used the Hiligaynon-Tagalog Dictionary of Alcantara (1997) to validate the translation and the pronunciation of each entry given by the informant of Hiligaynon. II. Revi ew of Related Literature Jacobson in his work presented the phonemes of 30 Philippine languages, two of which are the focus of the study: Cebuano and Hiligaynon. The study illustrated a large percentage of similar phonemes which include: /p/, where in Cebuano the allophone [p] of the phoneme /p/ is unreleased while in Hiligaynon the allophone is slightly aspirated, /t/, which also has the same case as that of /p/, /b/ and /d/ which are unreleased in both languages, /k/, /g/, /l/, /s/, /h/, /m/, /n/, /? /, /w/, /y/, /? /, /i/, /a/, and /u/. The allophones included are [s] of the phoneme /s/, [i] of the phoneme /? /, [u] of the phoneme /? /, [? ] of the phoneme /? / in both languages, and [r] of the phoneme /r/ in Hiligaynon. The phonemes /f/, /v/, /ts/, /dz/ and /? are usually found in loan words of Hiligaynon. Together with that are the allophones [e] of the phoneme /? / for Cebuano and [o] of the phoneme /? / in both languages, which are results of contact and trade. The allophones [i] of the phoneme /e/ in Cebuano and [u] of the phoneme /o/ in both languages are the only ones that cannot be found in loan words and trade languages. Lastly, J acobson presented /ts/ and /dz/ as portmanteau forms that occur in place of the clusters /ts/ and /ds/ in Cebuano. 4 Together with the phones of Hiligaynon and Cebuano, Jacobson also presented the existence of stress and lengthening. His study illustrated that stress exists in both languages while length doesn’t. Unfortunately, no further explanation followed. The symbols presented were the ones used in the study of Jacobson. While the authors have understood most of the phonological descriptions, they chose not to change any of the symbols used as they might be mistaken and this might result to uncertainty. 4 In Zorc’s work, in an attempt to prove the Bisayan unity, Zorc stated that all Bisayan dialects have penultimate rather than ultimate stress, and considers this an innovation of Bisayan dialects. With regards to length, Zorc posited that Bisayan dialects except for the Waray group have lost antepenultimate length in the cases of verb prefixes. This phenomenon is parallel to that of Tagalog and Bikolano and is seen as retention of the PPH. Also, affixation and any morphological change may result to stress shift. This can be seen in numerous languages and may be considered universal. Zorc mentioned that Bisayan dialects do not have any enclitic that operates like a suffix as opposed to that of Tagalog but when a morpheme is joined by an enclitic, the enclitic carries the stress. III. Presentation of Data The information that will be presented in this section is a summary of the phonological construction of the languages being studied. This will be divided into two parts, the first will show the segments of each language and its suprasegmental features using simple morphemes as the basis, and the second part is the change of suprasegmental features once morphophonemic change occurred. A. Base Words 1. Phonetic System a. The Consonants of Cebuano, Waray, and Hiligaynon Shown below are the consonant phonemes present in Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon presented in a phonemic chart, and the examples from each language for each phoneme. Both Waray and Cebuano have 16 consonant phonemes, namely /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /? /, /? /, /r/, /l/, /j/, /w/, /h/, and /? /, while Hiligaynon has 18 consonant phonemes as the phonemes /? / and /? / occur in it. Table 1. 1 The Consonant Phonemes of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Bilabial Alveolar Nasal Stops Fricatives Trill Glide Approximant Lateral Approximant r j w l p m b t n d ? ? ? k PostPalatal Velar Glottal Alveolar ? g ? h Table 1. 2 Examples of the Consonant Phonemes Cebuano p b t d k g m n ? ? ? ? r l j w ? h /k?.? r? s/ /l?.? ju? / /b. j? / /t?. g?.? w / /? tu.? u/ /? u.? h? w/ /p. /? b?. n? / /? t? n. d / /d. g? n/ /k?.? m? t/ /g?.? m? j/ /s?. n. n / /? du?. g? n/ / m/ -‘rake’ ‘far’ ‘girl’ ‘old’ ‘right’ ‘thirsty’ /hu.? r? m/ /l?. j/ /p?.? t? j/ /w?.? l? / /k?.? t / /h. mut/ ‘leg’ ‘to stand’ ‘to run’ ‘hand’ ‘smallâ€⠄¢ ‘clothing’ ‘ear’ ‘nine’ /p?.? t / /tu?. n / /d. k / /k?.? w? / /gu. t.? j/ /m?.? t / /d. h? n/ /? l. k? d/ /. / Waray ‘seven’ ‘clothing’ ‘earth’ ‘big’ ‘movement’ ‘small’ ‘eyes’ ‘leaf’ ‘to sit’ ‘correct’ -‘borrow’ ‘to swim’ ‘dead’ ‘left’ ‘we’ ‘smell’ Hiligaynon /? pu?. k / /b?.? s / /? tug. n? w/ /du?. t / /k?. b?.? l? / /? w?. p? / /m?.? n? k/ /t?.? n? n/ /. l? n/ / / / k. t? / / u. t? j/ /s?.? r? / /pu.? l? / /g?.? m? j/ /bw? s/ /b?.? s / /? h? k. w? t/ ‘to sit’ ‘wet’ ‘cold’ ‘earth’ ‘to know’ ‘beautiful’ ‘chicken’ ‘all’ ‘name’ ‘he/she/it’ ‘correct’ ‘small’ ‘to close’ â⠂¬Ëœred’ ‘few’ ‘tomorrow ‘wet’ ‘to carry’ ‘husband’ /b. d / /. m?.? h? n/ ‘father’ b. The Vowels of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Shown below are the vowel phonemes of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon presented in a vowel chart, and the examples from each language for each phoneme. Both Waray and Cebuano have 4 vowel phonemes, namely /? /, /? /, /u/, and /? , while Hiligaynon has 6 vowel phonemes, as the phonemes /? / and /? / occur in it. Table 2. 1 The Vowel Phonemes of Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon Front Close Near close Central Back u ? ? Close mid Open mid Open ? ? ? Table 2. 2 Examples of the Vowel Phonemes Cebuano ? u ? ? ? ? /t?. l/ /? u.? l? t/ /?.? n? m/ ‘foot’ ‘grey’ /s?.? p? t/ /lu.? p? d/ /. r? n/ -Waray ‘beside’ ‘to fly’ ‘to swim’ ‘name’ Hiligaynon /? h?. m / /? hu. l? g/ /? t? k. l? d/ /? k? r. n? / /su.? b / Ã¢â‚¬Ë œto do’ ‘movement’ ‘to push’ ‘meat’ ‘today’ ‘to drink’ /l?. j/ /?. m?.? h? n/ ‘father’ /g?.? b? d. l? k/ ‘shiny’ 2. Prosodic Features a. The Prosodic Features of Cebuano Table 3. 0 Cebuano Heteronyms ‘thread’ ‘poison’ ‘to spill’ ‘spendthrift’ ‘sugar cane’ ‘pipe’ /h?.? l? / /? h?. l? / /? j?. b? / /j?.? b? / /tu.? b? / /? tu. b? / ‘to go with’ ‘white hair’ ‘to come down’ ‘to win’ ‘crippled’ ‘corncob’ /? u.? b? n/ / u. b? n/ /m?.? n?. ug/ /m?. n?.? ug/ /? p?. k? w/ /p?.? k? w/ The words presented above are some of the heteronyms collected by the authors. A pair presents similar forms, but a change in stress placement changes the word’s meaning. With stress placement as their only difference, the authors could safely say that stress of Cebuano is phonemic. The stress placement of Cebuano words is usually found in the penultimate syllable. Most of the simple morphemes with three to four syllables still retain the regularity of a penultimate stress placement. However, there are also exceptions to this rule as some of the words gathered has ultimate stress placement. Cebuano words carry length. Like stress, vowel lengthening is regularly found in the penultimate syllable. A lengthened syllable also signifies that stress is also carried in that syllable. However, the presence or the absence of vowel lengthening in a single word does not result to a change in meaning. . The Prosodic Features of Waray Stress in Waray is phonemic. A change in stress placement results to a change in meaning. The words presented below are some of the heteronyms found wherein stress placement is the only difference. Table 4. 1 Waray Heteronyms with Different Stress Placement ‘to smell’ ‘to smell’ /h?.? m? t/ /? h?. m? t/ ‘to study ’ ‘to cook rice’ /tu. n/ /tu.? n/ ‘to know’ ‘agreement’ /s?.? b? t/ /? s?. b? t/ ‘floor’ ‘river’ /s?.? l / /? s?. l? g/ However, there are words that have different meanings but are similar both in form and stress placement. Waray speakers distinguish the meaning of these words based on the context of the words and how they are used in the sentence. The words presented below are some of the heteronyms found wherein stress placement is similar but the meanings are different. Table 4. 2 Waray Heteronyms with Similar Stress Placement ‘sun’ ‘day’ ‘how many? ’ ‘some’ / d. l? w/ / d. l? w/ /p?.? r? / /p?.? r? / ‘object’ ‘to put down’ / bu.? t / / bu.? t / Most Waray words carry their stress in the penultimate syllable. But, there are still exceptions to the rule as there are words that carry their stress in the ultimate and antepenultimate syllable. Vowel lengthening on the other hand is found in the penultimate syllable only. A lengthened syllable also signifies that stress falls on that syllable. c. The Prosodic Features of Hiligaynon Stress in Hiligaynon is phonemic. Shown below are some of the heteronyms found that have similar forms but different stress placement and different meanings. Table 5. 1 Hiligaynon Heteronyms with Different Stress Placement ‘fire’ ‘far’ ‘tree’ ‘full’ /k l?. j? / /k?. l?.? j / /? pu. n / /pu.? n / ‘hunger’ ‘hungry’ ‘other’ ‘bad’ /? gu. t? m/ /gu.? t? m/ /l?. n/ /? l?. n/ However, there are words with similar forms and similar stress placement but with different meanings. Show below are some of the heteronyms found with similar stress placement but with different meanings. Table 5. 2 Hiligaynon Heteronyms with Similar Stress Placement ‘day’ ‘sun’ ‘to count’ ‘to think’ / d. l? w/ / d. l? w/ /. s? p/ /. s? p/ ‘father’ ‘master’ /. m? / /. m? / Stress of Hiligaynon words generally falls on the penultimate syllable. But there are still many words whose stress also falls on the ultimate and even the antepenultimate syllable. Concerning words with four or more syllables, stress falls on the penultimate or ultimate syllable. Hiligaynon words carry length. Like stress, lengthened syllables are often the penultimate syllable, but it can also be the ultimate syllable. When a syllable is lengthened, the stress automatically falls on that syllable. B. Affixed Words I. Cebuano When Cebuano words are affixed, there is a tendency to stress shift. The stress of the new formed items usually depends on the base word or on the affix added. Table 6. 1 Cebuano Prefixes that Do Not Contribute to Stress Shift /? t?. w? g/ /mu-/ /n -/ /n? / /mu.? t?. w? g/ /n.? t?. w? g/ /n?.? t?. w? g/ /? u.? b? n/ /mu.? u.? b? n/ /n.? u.? b? n/ /n?.? u.? b? n/ The affixes cited above are the examples of affixes that do not contribute to stress shift. That is, regardless of affixation, stress is still placed on the stressed syllable of the base word. While the affixes above do not result to the shift in stress, there are affixes that cont ribute to the order of the placement of stress. These affixes are ka-, nag-, mag- and gi-. The first three affixes place the stress in the penultimate syllable while gi- positions stress in the ultimate syllable. Table 6. 2 Cebuano Prefixes that Contribute to Certain Stress Placement /k? -/ /n? g-/ /m? g-/ /g? -/ /? t?. w? g/ /n? g.? t?. w? g /m? g.? t?. w? g/ /g?. t?.? w? g/ /? u.? b? n/ /k?. u. b? n/ /n? g.? u. b? n/ /m? g.? u. b? n/ /g?.? u.? b? n/ When suffixes are added, the stress property of the base word is copied. This means that if the base word has its stress on the penultimate syllable, then the stress of the newly affixed word is also in the penultimate syllable but not necessarily on the same syllable as that of the base word. Table 6. 3 Cebuano Suffixes /? ?. w? g/ /-? / /-? / /-? n/ /t?.? w?. g? / /t?.? w?. g? / /t?.? w?. g? n/ /? u.? b? n/ /? u. b?.? n? / /? u. b?.? n? / /? u. b?.? n? n/ Affixation in Cebuano is not confined with using only one affix at a time. When two or more affixes are used, there is always one affix that influences the stress placement more than the other. An example of this is when the affix pa5- is used with mag-, nag-, and gi-. The affix pa5- cancels out the stress property and places the stress back to the stressed syllable of the base word. Table 6. 4 Cebuano Prefixes with the Affix -pa/? ?. w? g/ /n? g. p?.? t?. w? g/ /m? g. p?.? t?. w? g/ /g?. p?.? t?. w? g/ /? u.? b? n/ /n? g. p?.? u.? b? n/ /m? g. p?.? u.? b? n/ /g?. p?.? u.? b? n/ /k? -/ + /-p? -/ /n? g-/ + /-p? -/ /m? g-/ + /-p? -/ /g? -/ + /-p? -/ When a suffix is used with other affixes, the stress property of the new item is dictated and influenced by the suffix. Table 6. 5 Cebuano Prefixes with Suffixes 5 The affix pa- cannot be used alone, it is usually found together with the prefixes mag-, nag-, gi- and suffixes. /? t?. w? g/ /g? -/ + /-? n/ /p? -/ + /-? / /g?. t?.? w?. g? / /p?. t?.? w?. g? / /? u.? b? n/ /g?.? u. b?.? n? n/ /p?.? u. b?.? n? / /n? -/ +/-? n/ /n?. t?.? w?. g? n/ /n?.? u. b?.? n? n/ II. Waray Stress shift in Waray is influenced by three aspects: the base word, the morphophonemic change the word went through due to affixation, and the type of word t he affix brought about. When a word whose accent is at the penultimate syllable undergoes affixation, stress shift does not occur, regardless of the type or the number of affixes used. Shown below are some of the words whose stress is at the penultimate syllable. Table 7. Waray Words with Stress at the Penultimate Syllable /? t?. w / / n. t?.? t?. w / /p?. t?.? w?. / /k?. t?.? t?. w / /m?.? t?. w / /? b?. s? / / n.? b?. s? / /p?.? b?. s? / /n.? b?. s? / /m?.? b?. s? / /? l. kud/ / n. p?.? l. kud/ /n?.? l. kud/ /m?.? l. kud/ /p?.? l. ku. r? / When words with stress on ultimate syllable are joined together with an affix, three of the scenarios may occur. First, the stress property of the base word is retained; second, when affixation occurred followed by partial reduplication, stress is placed on the first reduplicated syllable. The reduplicated syllable may come from the initial syllable of the base word, or from another affix; and third, when the affix used results to a change in the part of speech, for example from verb to noun or adjective, the stress is placed on the penultimate syllable. The presence of the stress in the penultimate syllable in nouns and adjectives is an observable regularity in Waray. Shown below are some of the words whose stress is at the ultimate syllable. The verb used is /? u.? p? d/. Table 7. 2 Waray Words with Stress at the Ultimate Syllable Affixation /m?.? u.? p? d/ Affixation with Reduplication /m?. .? up. d? n/ Change in Category /k?. u. p? d/ (Verb to Noun) /n? g. u.? p? d/ /n?.? u.? p? d/ /g? n.? u.? p? d/ /n? g.? p?. p?.? u. p? d/ /n?.? k?. k?.? u. p? d/ /g? n.? p?. p?.? u. p? d/ - III. Hiligaynon Affixation in Hiligaynon contributes to stress shift. The resulting placement of stress often depends on the affix added and/or what kind of affix it is. When a prefix is added to a morpheme, the stress usually shifts to the prefix added. Shown below are some of the prefixes and examples. Table 8. 1 Hiligaynon Prefixes that Become Stressed /t?.? w? g/ /g? n-/ /n? g-/ /m? -/ /g? / /? g? n. t?. wag/ /? n? g. t?. w? g/ /? m?. t?. w? g/ /? u.? p? d/ /? g? n.? u. p? d/ /? n? g.? u. p? d/ /? m?.? u. p? d/ /? g?.? u. p? d/ However, stress can also fall on the ultimate syllable of the affixed morpheme as shown below. The affixes added may also be pointed out as the affixes that can contribute to the retention of stress placement. Table 8. 2 Hiligaynon Prefixes that Contribute to Retention of Stress /t?.? w? g/ /p? -/ /p?. t?.? w? g/ /? u.? p? d/ /p?.? u.? p? d/ /n? -/ /n?.? u.? p? d/ When multiple prefixes are added, stress still usually falls on the first prefix added. Shown below are the examples. Table 8. 3 Multiple Hiligaynon Prefixes with Stress on First Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /g? n-/ + /-p? -/ /n? g-/ + /-p? -/ /n? -/ + /-g? -/ /n? -/ + /-k? -/ /g? -/ + /-n? -/ + /-p? / But, stress can also fall on the second prefix added. An example is shown below. Table 8. 4 Multiple Hiligaynon Prefixes with Stress on Second Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /n? -/ + /-p? / Suffixes can also be added to morphemes. Note that when suffixes are added, the morphophonemic change deletion happens to the base morpheme before the suffix is added to it. Stress usually falls on the suffix added or, in the case of multiple suffixes, on the ultimate syllable. Some examples are shown below. Table 8. 5 Hiligaynon Suffixes /t?.? w? g/ /-? n/ /t? w.? g? n/ /? u.? p? d/ -/? u.? p? d/ /n?.? p?.? u. p? d/ /? g? n. p?. t?. w? g/ /? n? g. p?. t?. w? g/ /? n?. g?. t?. w? g/ /? n?. k?. t?. w? g/ /? u.? p? d/ /? g? n. p?.? u. p? d/ /? n? g. p?.? u. p? d/ -/? g?. n?. p?.? u. p? d/ /-? n/ /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /? up.? d? n/ /? up. d?.? n? j/ Interestingly, a minimal pair with suffixes was found by the authors. Shown below are the two words that differ in stress placement and meanings. Table 8. 6 Hiligaynon Heteronym with Suffix /? u.? p? d/ ‘samahan’ ‘sasamahan’ /? up.? d? n/ / up. d? n/ When both prefixes and suffixes are added to a morpheme, stress placement can vary. Sometimes it can fall on the prefix added as shown below. Table 8. 7 Multiple Hiligaynon Affixes with Stress on First Syllable /t?.? w? g/ / g? n -/ + /-? n/ /n? -/ + /-g? -/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /? g? n. t? w. g? n/ /? u.? p? d/ /? n?. g?.? up. d?. n? j/ It can also fall on the ultimate syllable as shown below. Table 8. Multiple Hiligaynon Affixes with Stress on Ultimate Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /n? g-/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /n? g. t? w. g?.? n? j/ /? u.? p? d/ /n? g.? up. d?.? n? j/ /m? g.? up. d?.? n? j/ /g?.? up. d?.? n? j/ /m? g-/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /m? g. t? w. g?.? n? j/ /g? -/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ Lastly, it can also fall on the penultimate syllable as shown below. Table 8. 9 Multiple Hiligaynon Affi xes with Stress on Penultimate Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /g? -/ + /-n? -/ + /-? n/ /m? -/ + /-? n/ /p? -/ + /-? / /g?. n?.? t? w. g? n/ /? u.? p? d/ /g?. n?. up. d? n/ /m?.? up. d? n/ /p?. p. d? / IV. Conclusion The data presented above are a number of lexical items found in the vocabulary of the languages being studied. These lexical items showed the different phonemes that exist in these three languages. Cebuano and Waray share the same consonants and vowels while Hiligaynon differs as it has two other consonants: [? ] and [? ], and two other vowels: [? ] and [? ]. The segments presented in this paper are very close to that of Jacobson’s paper, although there are differences between the vowel system presented in Jacobson’s study and from the one presented in this paper. These differences may be accounted for by the presence of lexical items that are results of contact and trade. It was stated earlier that embedded in the sound system of the languages are its suprasegmental features, and this paper focused at the stress and length of all three languages. The authors wrote earlier that stress is regularly found on the penultimate syllable of all languages in focus. This being the general rule means that lexical items whose stress is located at the ultimate and antepenultimate syllable is considered exceptions to the rule. All three languages carry length. When a syllable is lengthened, the stress of the word goes together with it. Length, just like stress, is usually found in the penultimate syllable. Hiligaynon however, carries length in both the penultimate and the ultimate syllable, unlike in Cebuano and Waray. Stress is phonemic as the stress placement of a word affects the meaning of the lexical item. This was seen in the heteronyms, words of similar forms but with different meanings whose stress placement is also different, found by the authors. While stress is a factor to a word’s meaning, length and its presence or absence does not result to a difference in meaning in all three languages. When a word has undergone morphophonemic changes, there are other changes that usually take place. This paper focused on affixation and its effects on stress. Stress shift is observable in all three languages, but each language has its own unique property and explanation for stress shift. The paper mentioned some of the factors that influence stress shift. The first factor is the base word. All three languages have words that have undergone affixation but did not undergo stress shift. This occurrence is usually found in Waray, wherein the stressed syllable is retained even if the word has undergone affixation. Another factor is the affix or affixes added. Both Cebuano and Hiligaynon exhibit regular stress shift depending on the kind of affix or affixes added on the base morpheme. There are affixes that can retain the original stressed syllable of the construction such as the Cebuano affixes mu-, ning- and na-, and the Hiligaynon affixes pa- and na-. There are also other affixes that dictate the placement of stress such as the Cebuano affixes ka-, nag-, mag- and gi-, and the Hiligaynon affixes gin-, nag-, ma- and ga-. Cebuano suffixes copy the stress placement of the base word, that is, if a base word has its stress on the ultimate syllable then the affixed word will carry the stress on the ultimate syllable and the same goes with words that have the stress on the penultimate syllable, while Hiligaynon suffixes carry the stress of the word. Another factor for stress shift is the peripheral morphophonemic changes that occurred together with affixation. This is seen in Waray wherein a word that has undergone affixation and reduplication usually finds its stress on the initial reduplicated syllable. The last factor is the change in category of the word. That is, when an affixed word results to a change in part of speech, the constructed word carries the stress property of the part of speech it belongs to as seen in Waray. Appendix A. Cebuano Wordlist 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. English Word Animal Ear Earth Egg Eye Father Fire Flower Fruit Foot Mat Hair Hand Head Clothing Day Dog Heart Husband House Leaf Body Blood Bird Back Year Woman Wind Wife Cebuano Translation Animal Dunggan Yuta Itlog Mata Amahan Sunog Buwak Prutas Teel Banig Buhok Kamut Ulo Sinina Adlaw Iro Dughan Bana Bay Dahon Lawas Dugo Langgam Likud Tuig Bayi Hangin Asawa Phonemic Transcription /. n?.? m? l/ /? du?. n/ /? j?. t? / / t. l / /m?.? t? / /?. m?.? h? n/ /? su. n / /? bu. w? k/ /? pru. t? s/ /t?. l/ /b?.? n / /bu.? h? k/ /k?.? m? t/ / u. l? / /s?.? n. n? / / d. l? w/ /. r? / /? du?. h? n/ /? b?

Hospitality Management Major - Culinary Class Term Project Outline Term Paper

Hospitality Management Major - Culinary Class Term Project Outline Term Paper Hospitality Management Major Hospitality Management Major - Culinary Term Project Outline The Blue Hill New York was started by Davis, Dan, and Laureen Barber. This restaurant is located in Blue Hill and Stone Barns in Pocantico, New York, which is well known for the food prepared by Chef Dan Barber and his associates. The original Blue Hill restaurant opened in the year 2000 in Greenwich Village (Blue Hill Farm). This restaurant is also well known for its location on an estate that is built for the Rockefeller family in the year 1930’s. The intention of the owners of this restaurant is not just to fill the customers’ stomach, but they aim at forming a relationship with its customers. In many cases, employees engage customers in conversation about all things. The level of hospitality and the many varieties of fresh food served in this restaurant is one where a person can arrive with the intention of ordering one specific thing and end up ordering much more. The Blue Hill New York its high quality p roducts that come fresh from the nearby firm, including the Stone Barns Center for Food and Agriculture, and the Blue Hill Farm in Great Barrington, Massachusetts assures customers that they will get their value for money. The restaurant not only aims at selling quality local food, but also aims at providing the best services. Employees help the restaurant deliver the best service by upholding the highest level of etiquette by being friendly to customers. The staff also provides any other assistance required to make sure that the customer is satisfied. Blue Hill Farm. Blue Hill. 2014. Web. 19 9 2014.

buy custom Case Analysis-Terri Schiavo essay

buy custom Case Analysis-Terri Schiavo essay Terri Schiavo was a legal case in the United States of America that involved the parents of Teresa Marie Schiavo and her legal guardians. Teresa Schiavo was commonly referred to as Terri. Terri was the main subject of this legal case. In 1990, she collapsed at her home in St. Petersburg, Florida due to cardiac arrest. Her brain was damaged due to ineffective supply of oxygen, and she remained in a coma for two months. Her condition was elevated to vegetative state. Doctors tried to restore Terry to the state of awareness through physical and experimental therapy. In 1998, her husband felt that her feeding tube be eliminated, and he filed an appeal in line with the Florida Statutes contained in section 765.401. Terris parents who claimed that she was in her conscious state objected this. The issue reached the level where the only solution could be found from the court. The court held that Terri did not wish to continue with the life prolonging measures. Her feeding tube was thus remov ed, but it was later reinserted after the court gave an injunction to stop the removal of the feeding tube. In 2005, a court in Penillas County ordered that her feeding tube is removed. This led to numerous appeals in courts concerning the issue. The most significant appeal was the one signed by the then US president George W. Bush, to keep her alive. The appeals in the federal courts come and passed, but the origin decision of removing her feeding tube was up held. The tube was removed on 18 March 2005, and; unfortunately, she passed on just a few days prior to the removal. An individual is obliged to turn down medical care if one feels he is all right. For instance, the court asserted that Terri did not wish to continue with the life pro-longing measures. This meant she did not wish to continue with the medical care in the long- run. This was her right and no one could object to it. Her wish against medical care was to be adequately addressed because there was a feeling that she was self supportive. The case brings out both moral and ethical issues. The moral issue drawn from the case is greed. It is perceived that Terris husband takes the decision to have the feeding tube disconnected just because of his greed to posses Terris estates after her demise. Greed is the worst part of life that makes individuals decide anythng malicious against others. For instance, Terris husband was aware that the removal of the tune could result in the ultimate death of his wife, but he did not care. This was against her parents wishes. The husband was also aware that Terri was going to die intestate. This meant he could be the ultimate owner of the vast estates left behind. In this case, I would prefer that Terri be cared for in the life prolonging medical care to keep her for a longer time. This is just the human position to take because each one of us has a right to live until the right time for death comes. In addition, no one is supposed to terminate the life of another individual due to the greed of acquiring the remaining estates and property. The theory of human life and how best to live would be vital in explaining this ethical issue. All humans have a right to life and their lives are valuable. Life should thus be treated as a vital gift to humans that cannot be compared to matters such as property. Human beings must keep in mind that all other individuals have a right to existence and achievement of their dreams whichever even if their condition is unpredictable. Terri would ultimately die. This is because the tube that supports her life would be eliminated thus exposing her to death. She would not be able to survive any longer, as there are no support systems for her feeding mechanisms. Her husband would enrich himself. This is because it is in his best of interest that Terry dies and leaves behind the estates. He would thus gain from the death of Terri due to his greedy behavior. The doctors would be defeated to make a choice between supporting life or killing. The doctors duty is to facilitate the healing of an individual and not to kill. The elimination of the tube would be a way of killing Terri; this would leave them in a dilemma regarding what to do. The taxpayers would have to have to pay more to support the life of Terri if the tube is not eliminated. The parents would end up losing their beloved daughter due to the elimination of the tube. Terris parents would have supported my ethical position to have Terri continue living because she is their daughter and they still cherish her. On the other hand, her husband would be against this because he needs Terris estates after her demise. The health pollicy consideration in this case is that an individual is attended to according to his wish. The law asserts that an individual can choose the kind of attention he needs. If one feels that his condition is too critical and could not survive any longer, he has a right to call off medical care for self-support. In addition, the health policy provides that an individual would be cared for according to his wish. For instance, Terris husband claims that she did not wish to continue with the prolonged medical care and her wishes were ultimately addressed. The health issues relating to individuals are vital and should be treated with the utmost care. Tong (2000) asserts that matters relating to the lives of other people should be put into consideration before making any decision relating to their further treatment. Due care should be the guiding principle to ensure that all other individuals have a right to life. Human beings should not give up even if they are in a critical state that is perceived so complicated. For instance, everyone should have supported the issue that Terri stays with the tube for a longer period in order to ensure she continues living. The ethical issue arising from the case could have been avoided. For instance, if a will had been earlier drafted the husband could not have pushed for the removal of the tube. He would have known his position in the will in advance and thus the greed to own Terris estates would be eliminated. These issues would not have arisen. In addition, it could be avoided by mutual agreement on the course of action needed. If the parents and the husband had talked about the issue, there could be no conflict of interest. They could have decided on one course of action, and they would have pursued. They would have probably settled on the course of action that is beneficial to both of them. This would assist in saving the life of Terri. This basic issue could have been solved in an easier manner if each party was told of the benefits of saving Terris life. In conclusion, the Terry Schiavos case spanned across many years and various questions abound regarding the validity of the decision argued by different parties concerning whether she should be allowed to live via life support, or her life be terminated. Thus, the case arises different ethical issues. Buy custom Case Analysis-Terri Schiavo essay

Business Strategies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business Strategies - Assignment Example Therefore, it is capable of getting large and deep discounts from the suppliers, thus giving the company an augmented purchasing influence as compared to the retailers. By making more sales and fast stock turnover, the company collects imbursement from clienteles before the dealers payments due date (Thompson, 2009). Hence, Costco gets more markdowns on cost and pass the reserves on to the consumers by reducing the prices. Additionally, the threat of out of date stock, one of the foremost fiscal problems, is reduced. The main fundamentals of Costco’s policy are a reduced price, restricted collection and controlled merchandise line. The company’s costs for high-quality countrywide and local products were far much lower than its competitors. Costco’s inventory only consisted of products whose prices could be bargained, hence offer customers noteworthy savings in expenditure. The main aim of the pricing strategy was to limit its gain on trademark products and for th e private label creation, â€Å"Kirkland Signature†. ... However, the company purposely restricted the assortment in every merchandise category to rapid- selling model, magnitudes and colors. This gave the customers a wide selecting range for the commodities, hence male more sales. Additionally, the treasure-Hunt Retailing policy was used to entice the members. In this case, almost a quarter of the product hand-outs were frequently varying, so the company’s product buyers kept on looking out to make occasional purchases of goods that would petition to the business’ customers and that would be rapidly bought. Some of the products could always be found in the company, while a few of them were the treasure-hunt materials, which kept on changing. Therefore, customers could self-assuredly walk in the shops to buy them. Hence, customers procure these products every time since they may not be found in the next stock. The company acquired its products officially on the gray market from other merchants or distraught dealers who would want to avoid excess or slow-moving stock. As a result, it made more sales than its competitors who did not apply this strategy. Further, because of the company’s cheaper prices and being well known for treasure-hunt storing, it spent less on marketing as well as advertising their products. This is because; the company did not need to engage into widespread promotion of their commodities unlike other companies that were not that eminent, thus cut on expenditure. They only used direct mail advertising, which they believed was cheaper (Thompson, 2009). Costco also applied the growth policy, where they opened various locations each year, especially in the United States as well as worldwide. The company opened several warehouses in different countries that